The arsenicals (compounds which contain the heavy metal element arsenic, As) have a long history of use in man – with both benevolent and malevolent intent. The name ‘arsenic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘arsenikon’ which means ‘potent'”. As early as 2000 BC, arsenic trioxide, obtained from smelting copper, was used as a drug and as a poison 2.
Hippocrates (460 to 377 BC) used orpiment (As2S3) and realgar (As2S2) as escharotics. Aristotle (384 to 322 BC) and Pliny the Elder (23 to 79 AD) also wrote about the medicinal properties of the arsenicals. Galen (130 to 200 AD) recommended a paste of arsenic sulphide for the treatment of ulcers. Paracelsus (1493 to 1541) used elemental arsenic extensively. He is quoted as saying ‘All substances are poisons … The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy’ – an apt statement for the arsenicals 3.
In the eighteenth century, Fowler’s solution (1% potassium arsenite) was used for the relief of various ailments and remained very popular for over 150 years. In the nineteenth century arsenicals were ingested, inhaled as vapours, injected intramuscularly and intravenously, and given in enemas. They caused cutaneous capillary dilatation – the fashionable ‘milk and roses’ complexion. Arsenicals were used to treat acne caused by iodides and bromides, and were later added to bromide containing mixtures to prevent bromide eruptions 4. By the early 1900s, physicians were using arsenicals
to treat pellagra and malaria. In 1912 arsenic was recognized as the best agent in the Pharmacopoeia’. At about the same time Ehrlich’s experiments yielded arsphenamine, and arsenicals remained the mainstay of treatment for syphilis for nearly 40 years until the advent of penicillin.
Arsenicals were also popular in treating vaginal discharge of any origin. They were supplied as vaginal inserts or powder for insufflation, and were apparently effective against trichomonas5. However, they were superseded by metronidazole – the first clinical reports of its efficacy appearing in 1959.
Today arsenicals are still used in the treatment of sleeping sickness. Some Indian women take arsenic containing medicines during the first trimester of pregnancy, believing that this increases their chance of having a son 4. In humans no nutritional role is known for arsenic, although it has a function in animal husbandry – organic arsenicals are added to animal feed to control disease and promote growth 4. However, small doses of inorganic arsenicals have long been felt to have a ‘tonic’ or ‘alternative’ property. Large quantities of arsenical ores were consumed by the ‘arsenic eaters’ of the Austrian mountains in the belief that they improved their stamina, appearance and sense of wellbeing. This may be just folklore, but it has been suggested that arsenic may be an unrecognized essential nutrient, in which Western diets are deficient’.
Chemistry
Arsenic (atomic number 33, atomic weight 75) is a member of the nitrogen group in the periodic table. It is classified as a transitional element or metalloid. Arsenic can exist in three different valency states: elemental arsenic (zero oxidation state); trivalent; or pentavalent arsenic. It forms alloys with metals and also readily reacts with carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, forming covalent bonds. The chemistry of arsenic is further mystified by the practice of often not specifying in published work the chemical nature of the arsenic-containing compound, but just referring to it as ‘arsenic’.
The toxicity of an arsenical varies with the valency state (trivalent are more toxic than pentavalent compounds), the physical state of the compound, and the rates of absorption and elimination. Elemental arsenic (the metalloid) is non-toxic even if eaten in substantial amounts 4. Of the inorganic compounds, those containing pentavalent arsenic (derivatives of arsenic acid, H3AsO4, the arsenates) are much less toxic than those containing trivalent arsenic. Inorganic compounds of trivalent arsenic are derivatives of arsenious acid, H2As203 (the arsenites) and include arsenic trioxide (As203, ‘the poison of poisons’). Arsine (AsH3, a gaseous hydride of arsenic trioxide) is the most toxic of all the arsenicals. Its toxic effects are distinct
because it is inhaled, rather than absorbed through the skin or gastrointestinal tract. Organic arsenicals contain arsenic (either trivalent or pentavalent) linked to a carbon atom by a covalent bond. In general, they are excreted more rapidly than inorganic compounds6. The most important trivalent organic arsenicals are the arsphenamines, which were used in the treatment of syphilis. Pentavalent organic compounds were used in the treatment of sleeping sickness.
Arsenic trioxide: This inorganic compound of trivalent arsenic has been used extensively as a remedy and as a poison. In 1786 Thomas Fowler, an English physician, reported the use of a flavoured solution of arsenic trioxide in the cure of agues, remittent fevers, and periodic headaches. Fowler, with Hughes (an apothecary) had identified arsenic as the major constituent of the ‘ague drops’ patented by Thomas Wilson, a London chemist, in 1781 7. 288 Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine Volume 86 May 1993
Fowler’s solution (1% potassium arsenite, K AsO2) was used as a tonic for anaemia and rheumatism. It was used to treat psoriasis, eczematous eruptions, dermatitis herpetiformis, asthma, cholera and syphilis. In 1865, Fowler’s solution was the first chemotherapeutic agent used in the treatment of leukaemia (which was first described in 1845). It was chosen as it was known to produce smoother coats and improve digestion in horses! In human leukaemics it produced a transient improvement. In 1931 Forkner and Scott, at Boston City Hospital, ‘rediscovered’ Fowler’s solution for the treatment of chronic myeloid leukaemia, and arsenicals and irradiation remained the treatment of choice until busulphan was introduced in 1953 7.
Arsenic trioxide has an even longer history of use with malevolent intent. Its popularity as a poison was probably due to its availability, inexpensiveness, and lack of taste and odour. It has the appearance of sugar (it is also known as ‘white arsenic’) and does not destroy the appetite. It is the most toxic arsenical after arsine, but does not produce instantaneous death. In Arsenic and old lace, John Kesselring’s 1941 play, half a teaspoonful of strychnine and a pinch of cyanide were also added to the teaspoonful of ‘arsenic’ in a gallon of elderberry wine; the concoction which the old ladies used rapidly to dispatch their gentlemen callers.
One of the earliest documented cases of homicide caused by an arsenical occurred in 55 AD, when Nero poisoned Britannicus to secure his Roman throne.
The Borgias used arsenicals. In the Middle Ages the poisoner became a part of social and political life. White arsenic acquired a reputation, it was called ‘poudre de succession’ or ‘inheritance powder’. It was the favourite poison in nineteenth century France (phosphorus was the second most popular). However, its use rapidly declined towards the end of the century. This coincided with the development of a highly sensitive assay for arsenic 3. It continues to be used for suicidal purposes 8.
Organic arsenicals
In the early 1900s physicians began using the less toxic organic arsenicals3. About 32 000 organic arsenic-containing compounds have been made – more than any other trace element 1. Sodium cacodylate and sodium arsanilate were used for the treatment of pellagra, malaria and sleeping sickness.
Breinl and Thomas at the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine had produced atoxyl (a pentavalent compound) which was used to treat sleeping sickness. However, its high arsenic content produced optic atrophy. This work inspired Paul Ehrlich. He instructed his workers to study the organic arsenicals to find ‘the silver bullet’ against the syphilis spirochaete (which was first identified in 1905) 9. The therapeutic problem was how to obtain maximum effect on the parasite with minimal effect on the body’s tissues. In 1907, the 606th preparation of an arsenobenzene compound (containing 32% arsenic) was synthesized. Its potential was overlooked for two years but later work, using syphilitic rabbits, convinced Ehrlich that arsphenamine was ‘the silver bullet’. It was first used to treat human syphilis in 1911. Hoechst eventually gained approval to market Salvarsan (also called ‘healing arsenic’ or ‘606’) and 65 000 free samples were sent to doctors all over the world. Arsphenamine was enthusiastically received by the international scientific periodicals, and was the subject of banner headlines in the newspapers. Ehrlich warned that the drug might be harmful, because of its potency, and urged caution with intravenous administration. The treatment of syphilis with arsenicals was a lengthy and unpleasant business: ‘two minutes with Venus, 2 years with mercury’ (aphorism, J Earle Moore). Arsphenamine was given by intravenous infusion, each treatment lasting an hour. Courses of arsenical treatments would be alternated with mercury rubs (which stained the patient’s underclothes and had a characteristic odour) or intramuscular mercuric succinamide. Later, 6-8 week courses of intravenous arsenical were alternated with 6-8 weeks of intramuscular bismuth. The minimum duration of treatment exceeded 18 months; 20 injections of arsphenamine and 30 to 40 injections of bismuth 10. The development of neoarsphenamine (Neosalvarsan or ‘909’), a less toxic derivative of arsphenamine which could be injected intravenously, enabled more rapid treatments, but was still associated with nausea and vomiting. Oxophenarsine hydrochloride (Mapharsen) could be injected rapidly and produced fewer reactions. In children sulpharsphenamine was given intramuscularly. It also produced nausea and vomiting, and occasionally a ‘nitratoid reaction’ – sweating, diarrhoea, hypotension and collapse. Silver arsphenamine was used for the treatment of central nervous system syphilis – a small amount being introduced into the cerebrospinal fluid via lumbar puncture. This was a very painful treatment which, in rare cases, caused serious spinal cord damage. Benefit may have resulted from the production of an aseptic meningitis or by altering the permeability of the blood brain barrier to intravenously administered drugs. In patients treated early, and those conscientious enough to complete the full course of treatment, arsenicals produced at least as good a cure rate as modern day syphilis therapy 10. They were used widely in Europe until the late 1940s and even later
in the Far East, where they were also used to treat yaws. Penicillin was first advocated as a treatment for syphilis in 1943 but was not generally available for several years. It had the great advantage that it could be given over a short period of time when the patient was most apprehensive and anxious for a cure. Today arsenicals are still used in man, in the treatment of African trypanosomiasis. This causes sleeping sickness which is always fatal without treatment. The original arsenical used was tryparsamide (containing 25% pentavalent arsenic in organic combination). This was associated with a high incidence of toxic reactions and could cause blindness. As the parasites’ resistance to it was increasing, it has been replaced by two other organic arsenicals – melarsoprol (Mel B), containing 18.8% trivalent arsenic, and melarsonyl (Mel-W). Both are given by intravenous injection and are toxic drugs. They may cause a potentially life threatening reactive arsenical encephalopathy.
Conclusion
Throughout history arsenicals have been useful therapeutic agents for many of man’s ailments. Most have been superseded by less toxic drugs. Perhaps, in the future, there will be a substance amongst the many arsenic-containing compounds that will prove to be Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine Volume 86 May 1993 289 useful in treating some of the many lethal diseases of today.
References
1 Frost DV. The arsenic problems. Adv Exp Med Biol
1977;91:259-79
2 Frost DV. Arsenicals in biology – retrospect and prospect.
Fed Proc 1967;26:194-208
3 Gorby MS. Arsenic poisoning (clinical conference). West
J Med 1988;149:308-15
4 Winship KA. Toxicity of inorganic arsenic salts. Adverse
Drug React Acute Poisoning Rev 1984;3(3): 129-60
5 Forgan R. History of the treatment of trichomoniasis. Br
J Vener Dis 1972;48(6):522-4
6 Klaasen CD. Heavy metals and heavy-metal antagonists. In: Goodman LS, Gilman A, Rall TW, Murad F,
eds. The pharmacological basis oftherapeutics, 7th edn.
New York: Macmillan, 1985:1614-17
7 Sears DA. History of the treatment of chronic myelocytic
leukaemia. Am J Med Sci 1988;296(2):85-6
8 Jolliffe DM, Budd AJ, Gwilt DJ. Massive acute arsenic
poisoning. Anaesthesia 1991;46:288-90
9 Thorburn AL. Paul Ehrlich: pioneer of chemotherapy
and cure by arsenic (1854-1915). Br J Vener Dis
1983;59(6):404-5
10 Marlow FW Jr. Syphilis then and now. JAMA 1974;
230(9):1320-1
New York is well known for hotdogs, the Empire State Building, the Ponzi Scheme, and the Brooklyn Bridge among its many claims to fame. However, contrary to popular belief, DJ vinyl scratching is not one of them. Caveat; Most New Yorkers in fact believe the phenomena originated there.
When one thinks of the English countryside or rural France replete with rambling country house estates and fairly tale chateaus sitting alongside grand chapels and country church spires, one might imagine a realm of manners, neighborly love, and country gentlemen. However, history informs us [...] Read more →
Verum usque in præsentem diem multa garriunt inter se Canonici de abscondito quodam istius Abbatis Thomæ thesauro, quem sæpe, quanquam adhuc incassum, quæsiverunt Steinfeldenses. Ipsum enim Thomam adhuc florida in ætate existentem ingentem auri massam circa monasterium defodisse perhibent; de quo multoties interrogatus ubi esset, cum risu respondere solitus erat: “Job, [...] Read more →
On the decline of the Roman power, about five centuries after Christ, the countries of Northern Europe were left almost destitute of a national government. Numerous chiefs, more or less powerful, held local sway, as far as each [...] Read more →
It has been said by a thoughtful writer that the subject of witchcraft has hardly received that place which it deserves in the history of opinions. There has been, of course, a reason for this neglect—the fact that the belief in witchcraft is no longer [...] Read more →
Are you dissatisfied with the Savings Account and CD Interest Rates your bank currently has on offer?
If so, go to https://www.treasurydirect.gov and open an account. The U.S. Government’s iBonds are currently earning 9.62% interest through October of this year.
Individuals may purchase $10,000 worth of iBonds per [...] Read more →
The rude awakening over the past year of increasingly high food and gas prices has been quite the shock for the American consumer. The U.S. Federal Government and Federal Reserve Bank’s sluggish reaction to growing consumer price inflation certainly have not helped. If history is to be our guide, there is more [...] Read more →
FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION16 CFR Part 23Guides for the Jewelry, PreciousMetals, and Pewter Industries
The US Government has laws guiding the business practices of the Jewelry and Precious Metals Industries. If you are unclear as a seller as to your obligations under the law as related to any [...] Read more →
Prisons as places of detention are very ancient institutions. As soon as men had learned the way to build, in stone, as in Egypt, or with bricks, as in Mesopotamia, when kings had many-towered fortresses, and the great barons castles [...] Read more →
Country House Essays, the book is now in print. This is an eclectic collection of both original, and historical essays, poems, books, and articles created for our loyal reader hear at CountryHouseEssays.com. It is jam packed with reprints of articles from this website. The cost is $49.95 for this massive [...] Read more →
Although the light of nature, and the works of creation and providence, do so far manifest the goodness, wisdom, and power of God, as to leave men inexcusable; yet are they not sufficient to give that knowledge of God, and of his will, which is necessary [...] Read more →
Harvey Wiley, Chief Chemist of the Department of Agriculture’s Division of Chemistry (third from the right) with his staff, not long after he joined the division in 1883. Wiley’s scientific expertise and political skills were a key to passage of the 1906 Food and Drugs Act and the creation of the FDA.
“Saint John’s Gate, Clerkenwell, the main gateway to the Priory of Saint John of Jerusalem,” black and white photograph by the British photographer Henry Dixon, 1880. The church was founded in the 12th century by Jordan de Briset, a Norman knight. Prior Docwra completed the gatehouse shown in this photograph in 1504. The gateway [...] Read more →
The University of Tennessee in Knoxville, Tennessee has a long heralded tradition of assisting farmers and growers through it’s Agricultural Extension Service. The following bulletin entitled Grape Growing in Tennessee discusses the Muscadine variety of grapes among others. Muscadine grapes are often found growing wild in Tennessee. On my grandfather’s West Tennessee [...] Read more →
Resolution adapted at the New Orleans Convention of the American Institute of Banking, October 9, 1919:
“Ours is an educational association organized for the benefit of the banking fraternity of the country and within our membership may be found on an equal basis both employees and employers; and in full appreciation [...] Read more →
Reprinted from FineModelShips.com with the kind permission of Dr. Michael Czytko
The SAN FELIPE is one of the most favoured ships among the ship model builders. The model is elegant, very beautifully designed, and makes a decorative piece of art to be displayed at home or in [...] Read more →
By the death of Mr. Scarth on the 5th of April, at Tangier, where he had gone for his health’s sake, the familiar form of an old and much valued Member of the Institute has passed away. Harry Mengden Scarth was bron at Staindrop in Durham, [...] Read more →
A Lecture Delivered at the Guildhall, March 2, 1853 by Rev. H.M. Scarth, M.A., Rector of Bathwick.
To understand the ancient history of the country in which we live, to know something of the arts and manners of the people who have preceded us, to ascertain what we owe to [...] Read more →
Eadweard Muybridge was a fascinating character. Click here to learn how Eadweard committed “Justifiable Homicide” after shooting his wife’s lover in 1874.
The arsenicals (compounds which contain the heavy metal element arsenic, As) have a long history of use in man – with both benevolent and malevolent intent. The name ‘arsenic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘arsenikon’ which means ‘potent'”. As early as 2000 BC, arsenic trioxide, obtained from smelting copper, was used [...] Read more →
Photo Caption: The Marquis of Zetland, KC, PC – otherwise known as Lawrence Dundas Son of: John Charles Dundas and: Margaret Matilda Talbot born: Friday 16 August 1844 died: Monday 11 March 1929 at Aske Hall Occupation: M.P. for Richmond Viceroy of Ireland Vice Lord Lieutenant of North Yorkshire Lord – in – Waiting [...] Read more →
The Hunt Saboteur is a national disgrace barking out loud, black mask on her face get those dogs off, get them off she did yell until a swift kick from me mare her voice it did quell and sent the Hunt Saboteur scurrying up vale to the full cry of hounds drowning out her [...] Read more →
Awakened to mild rumbles of thunder and pounding rain washed down by a steady drizzle and more downpour coating asphalt with mirrored reflections of oily alluvial runoff easing back into a soothing pattern of velvety rain drops drizzling down the foliage encased wrought iron balcony rails
THE PRINCIPAL fruit and nut trees grown commercially in the United States (except figs, tung, and filberts) are grown as varieties or clonal lines propagated on rootstocks.
Almost all the rootstocks are grown from seed. The resulting seedlings then are either budded or grafted with propagating wood of the desired [...] Read more →
On the evening of November 15th, the little village of Mahim was the scene of a murder, perhaps the most determined which has ever stained the annals of Bombay. Three men were massacred in cold blood, in a house used [...] Read more →
Reprint from The Sportsman’s Cabinet and Town and Country Magazine, Vol I. Dec. 1832, Pg. 94-95
To the Editor of the Cabinet.
SIR,
Possessing that anxious feeling so common among shooters on the near approach of the 12th of August, I honestly confess I was not able to [...] Read more →
Group of Thuggee – From Harpers Magazine – Dec. 12, 1837
The existence of large bodies of men having no other means of subsistence than those afforded by plunder, is, in all countries, too common to excite surprise; and, unhappily, organized bands of assassins are not peculiar to India! The associations of [...] Read more →
On the decline of the Roman power, about five centuries after Christ, the countries of Northern Europe were left almost destitute of a national government. Numerous chiefs, more or less powerful, held local sway, as far as each [...] Read more →
The Interrogation of Joan of Arc by Cardinal Winchester
Pussy Willow wielded a real broad sword Honed with diamonds and emery board They say she cut her own umbilical chord The day she strapped it on to serve her Lord
Add the following ingredients to a four or six quart crock pot, salt & pepper to taste keeping in mind that salt pork is just that, cover with water and cook on high till it boils, then cut back to low for four or five hours. A slow cooker works well, I [...] Read more →
We opened the doors on the old Dodge van parked under the big oak tree the old farm house etched with memory ropes hanging down and an old plank swing She kicked her bare feet playfully in the dirt and then soared to the sky Looking out over Illinois corn fields full in growth, [...] Read more →
I once met a chap, hailed from Harvard said where’d ye attend school, this here is starboard On his diploma was a bit more yellow Than that on the belly of his scholarly fellows His hat was a good half inch taller Than his lapels which were narrowly smaller So I yanked him up [...] Read more →
THE SNIPE, from the Shooter’s Guide by B. Thomas – 1811
AFTER having given a particular description of the woodcock, it will only. be necessary to observe, that the plumage and shape of the snipe is much the same ; and indeed its habits and manners sets bear a great [...] Read more →
Photo Caption: The Marquis of Zetland, KC, PC – otherwise known as Lawrence Dundas Son of: John Charles Dundas and: Margaret Matilda Talbot born: Friday 16 August 1844 died: Monday 11 March 1929 at Aske Hall Occupation: M.P. for Richmond Viceroy of Ireland Vice Lord Lieutenant of North Yorkshire Lord – in – Waiting [...] Read more →
By the time I got to California the blondes had gone home The Beach Boys were sporting dreadlocks and singing reggae songs The life guard at the tower didn’t have a tan Said if you’re looking for Mama Cass she’s asleep over there in the van
Formerly vinegar was prepared on the farm to a greater extent than now. The introduction of laws for the control of the sale of vinegar, altho intended to help the honest manufacturer, has discouraged the preparation of vinegar for sale in a small way, not because it is difficult to meet the requirements [...] Read more →
The following recipes are from a small booklet entitled 500 Delicious Salads that was published for the Culinary Arts Institute in 1940 by Consolidated Book Publishers, Inc. 153 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill.
If you have been looking for a way to lighten up your salads and be free of [...] Read more →
The Queen Elizabeth Trust, or QEST, is an organisation dedicated to the promotion of British craftsmanship through the funding of scholarships and educational endeavours to include apprenticeships, trade schools, and traditional university classwork. The work of QEST is instrumental in keeping alive age old arts and crafts such as masonry, glassblowing, shoemaking, [...] Read more →
WITCHCRAFT, SORCERY, MAGIC AND OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL PHENOMENA AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS ON MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY OPERATIONS IN THE CONGO
This report has been prepared in response to a query posed by ODCS/OPS, Department of the Army, regarding the purported use of witchcraft, sorcery, and magic by insurgent elements in the Republic [...] Read more →
The downloadable audio clip is of FDR’s Second Fireside Chat recorded on May 7th, 1933.
The transcript that follows is my corrected version of the transcript that is found The American Presidency Project website that was created by Gerhard Peters and Professor [...] Read more →
In this essay we are examining another form of matter otherwise known as national literary matters, the three most important of which being the Matter of Rome, Matter of France, and the Matter of England.
Our focus shall be on the Matter of England or [...] Read more →
THE transient tenure that most of us have in our dwellings, and the absorbing nature of the struggle that most of us have to make to win the necessary provisions of life, prevent our encouraging the manufacture of well-wrought furniture.
We mean to outgrow our houses—our lease expires after [...] Read more →
There exists at present a good deal of misconception with regard to the practices of the Haṭha Yoga. People easily believe in the stories told by those who themselves [...] Read more →
For the somewhat startling suggestion in the heading of this interview, the missionary interviewed is in no way responsible. The credit of it, or, if you like, the discredit, belongs entirely to the editor of the Review, who, without dogmatism, wishes to pose the question as [...] Read more →
Add 3 quarts clover blossoms* to 4 quarts of boiling water removed from heat at point of boil. Let stand for three days. At the end of the third day, drain the juice into another container leaving the blossoms. Add three quarts of fresh water and the peel of one lemon to the blossoms [...] Read more →
H.F. Leonard was an instructor in wrestling at the New York Athletic Club. Katsukum Higashi was an instructor in Jujitsu.
“I say with emphasis and without qualification that I have been unable to find anything in jujitsu which is not known to Western wrestling. So far as I can see, [...] Read more →
4 young squirrels – quartered Salt & Pepper 1 large bunch of fresh coriander 2 large cloves of garlic 2 tbsp. salted sweet cream cow butter ¼ cup of brandy 1 tbsp. turbinado sugar 6 fresh apricots 4 strips of bacon 1 large package of Monterrey [...] Read more →
Water, 1 gallon; sugar 2 pounds of water. 61/2 pints, and simple syrup. 2 1/2 pints; 2 pints of pineapple stock or 1 pint of pineapple stock and 1 pint of grated pineapple juice of 6 lemons. Mix, strain and freeze.
Kneller was born in Lubeck, studied with Rembrandt in Amsterdam and by 1676 was working in England as a fashionable portrait painter. He painted seven British monarchs (Charles II, James II, William III, Mary II, Anne, George I and George II), though his [...] Read more →
Reprinted from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA.org)
The traditional means of obtaining banana planting material (“seed”) is to acquire suckers from one’s own banana garden, from a neighbor, or from a more distant source. This method served to spread common varieties around the world and to multiply them [...] Read more →
This beautifully illustrated New Testament based on the 1611 KJV Bible is published in Limited Edition of 500 Copies World Wide. Included at the end of the text is an unabridged copy of Albert J. Edmunds 1917 classic work, The Oldest Resurrection Documents. Edmunds’ book on the Resurrection utilized source [...] Read more →
THE shirk is a well-known specimen of the genus homo. His habitat is offices, stores, business establishments of all kinds. His habits are familiar to us, but a few words on the subject will not be amiss. The shirk usually displays activity when the boss is around, [...] Read more →
